Liberty or Death: the Last Speech Before War
This continues my series marking the two hundred and fiftieth anniversary of the American Revolution. Previously was Parliament's Missed Chance for Peace, on 1 February 1775; next is the Battle of Lexington and Concord.
On this week in 1775, March 23rd, Patrick Henry gave his famous oration concluding in "Give me liberty or give me death!"
War was mere weeks away, but it wasn't yet obvious in Virginia how close it was. Parliament had voted for war - but that news hadn't yet reached America. Massachusetts was already in open rebellion, with a de facto independent government, waiting for the British General Gage to strike the blow - but the other colonies hadn't taken that final step yet.
Still, in many parts of Virginia, local militias were drilling. In Virginia's main ports, Committees of Inspection and Correspondence tried to coordinate the Patriot cause. But, there was as yet no government for Virginia outside the British colonial governor, Lord Dunmore.
Now, finally, in March 1775, the Second Virginia Convention was convening to fill that hole. It was to that Convention Patrick Henry would give his speech, famous then and still famous now.
By this time, Patrick Henry had been an elected member of the House of Burgesses (the colonial legislature of Virginia) for almost ten years.
He lived in Hannover County, north of Richmond, which was then a backwater poorer part of Virginia. We would consider Henry (and his relatives) well-endowed planters, with thousands of acres and numerous slaves. But by the standards of the time, Virginia's upper-class Tidewater society disdained him as poor. They didn't have as many slaves; they didn't have docks to ship their crops directly to England; they didn't import the latest fashions and consumer goods.
But, Patrick Henry was popular among his neighbors as a lawyer, giving stirring speeches heavy on rhetoric about liberty even when tangential to the cases he was arguing. They had elected him to the House of Burgesses in 1765 during the Stamp Act crisis. He had instantly gained notoriety denying Parliament's power to tax the colonies, saying famously - in words at least verging on treason:
Caesar had his Brutus, Charles the First his Cromwell, and George the Third... may profit by their example.
This was unpopular among many Tidewater aristocrats (who, in the mid-1760's, were still mostly loyal to Britain), but popular among most people in Virginia and elsewhere in America. With the repeal of the Stamp Act, but continuing tensions with Britain, Henry grew to become a leader in the House of Burgesses.
The royal governor of Virginia, Lord Dunmore, had dissolved the House of Burgesses in August 1774 during the leadup to the First Continental Congress. It would never meet again under royal authority.
However, the members of that House walked across the street to the Raleigh Tavern1 to form what would be called the First Virginia Convention. They chose Patrick Henry, along with George Washington and others, to represent Virginia in the First Continental Congress; and they called for a second convention to meet in March 1775.
That second convention, it was decided, would be held in Richmond. Williamsburg was the capital, but it was also the seat of the royal governor - and dangerously exposed to the Royal Navy.
But by the time the Second Virginia Convention met, many delegates thought the chances were good for reconciliation. Events in Massachusetts had seemed to quiet down. Parliament was considering resolutions of peace. The king had reportedly smiled at the Continental Congress's petition.
In fact, King George had not considered the petition after that initial smile, Parliament had roundly voted down the peace compromise, and Massachusetts was staring down General Gage, both armies ready for war on a minute's notice. But, the burgesses of Virginia hadn't heard this from England yet, and far away from Massachusetts they could easily not notice the real state of things there when it seemed quiet.
The Second Virginia Convention opened 20 March 1775 in seeming peace. On the first day, the 95 delegates present elected as their president Peyton Randolph, former president of the First Continental Congress. For the next two days, they discussed the First Continental Congress approvingly. So far, both supporters of reconciliation and supporters of confrontation could agree.
On the fourth day, however, Henry proposed three resolutions. First, that a militia would obviate any need for British troops in Virginia; second, that they should raise a militia at once without waiting for the House of Burgesses which hadn't been allowed to meet. And third:
“Resolved, therefore, That this colony be immediately put into a state of defence, and that 2 be a committee to prepare a plan for embodying, arming, and disciplining such a number of men, as may be sufficient for that purpose.”
This was no more than mirroring what the Massachusetts Provincial Congress had already said and done the previous autumn. They had already been in "a state of defence" against the British Army all winter. But in Virginia, far away from the British occupying army in Boston - and with many delegates hoping for King George to accept their petitions any day - this was seen as a horrific declaration of war.
They weren't wrong; it was a declaration of war.
At first - according to William Wirt's 1817 biography of Patrick Henry - the Convention was horrified. But Henry, with his oratory, won them over.
The Virginia Convention didn't give transcripts of their speeches. The only version of Henry's speech we have is in Wirt's biography, ostensibly based upon the testimony of eyewitnesses long after the event. Some modern historians question how many artistic liberties Wirt took. But regardless, Henry's speech was absolutely eloquent and persuasive - that's the one thing we do know from people who heard him at the time - and it was in Wirt's form that it came down to the future.
Mr. President3, it is natural to man to indulge in the illusions of hope. We are apt to shut our eyes against a painful truth... I know of no way to judge the future but by the past. And judging by the past, I wish to know what there has been in the conduct of the British ministry for the past ten years to justify the hopes with which these gentlemen have been pleased to solace themselves and the House? ...
... Are fleets and armies necessary to a work of love and reconciliation?... And what have we to oppose to them? Shall we try argument? Sir, we have been trying that for the last ten years...
... We have petitioned—we have remonstrated—we have supplicated—we have prostrated ourselves before the throne, and have implored its interposition to arrest the tyrannical hands of the ministry and parliament. Our petitions have been slighted; our remonstrances have produced additional violence and insult; our supplications have been disregarded; and we have been spurned, with contempt, from the foot of the throne. In vain, after these things, may we indulge the fond hope of peace and reconciliation. There is no longer any room for hope... We must fight!—I repeat it, sir, we must fight!!
... It is in vain, sir, to extenuate the matter. Gentlemen may cry, peace, peace—but there is no peace. The war is actually begun! The next gale that sweeps from the north, will bring to our ears the clash of resounding arms! Our brethren are already in the field! Why stand we here idle? What is it that gentlemen wish? What would they have? Is life so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the price of chains, and slavery? Forbid it, Almighty God!—I know not what course others may take; but as for me, give me liberty, or give me death!”
Henry's three resolutions were adopted. He and George Washington - among others - were named to the committee to coordinate the militia.
The committee promptly ordered each county in Virginia to prepare at least two militia companies "in constant training and readiness to act on any emergency", and a coordinating committee to help each county equip its militia.
Meanwhile, the royal governor Lord Dunmore issued a proclamation against the Virginia Convention, commanding "all magistrates and other officers, to use their utmost endeavours to prevent" them from meeting. It was ignored.
The Virginia Convention then appointed delegates to the upcoming Second Continental Congress, provided for a subsequent Third Convention to meet in July, and adjourned. Both Henry and Washington would continue to organize the militia. Their work as a convention was done; they now had other work to do. Virginia was now, like Massachusetts, in an undeclared rebellion against Britain.
Henry had given, perhaps, the last great speech before the American Revolution was poised to move from mere words to deeds.
Historian Joseph Ellis says in his biography of George Washington that, with the resolution to raise militia, "Washington succeeded orators like Henry as the most crucial figure." He isn't quite correct: there was more than one significant man in the army (Washington's central importance would come over a year later), and speeches in Congress were still very significant. The American Revolution was fought in the words of the Declaration of Independence and books like Common Sense as much as on the battlefield.
But Ellis captures something real. Henry's resolution ensured that the Revolution wouldn't be just a matter of words or a mere Massachusetts revolt. The other colonies would be ready to fulfill their promises from the First Continental Congress and stand behind Massachusetts to defend their liberties.
America would turn its words to action.
The Raleigh Tavern, like many Williamsburg buildings, has been rebuilt in modern-day Colonial Williamsburg where it serves tourists. Unfortunately, I didn't get a chance to eat there when I visited.
This was a blank to be filled in during debate, a common legislative practice at the time. Henry didn't want the initial debate to be distracted by who specifically would be on that committee.
This was another common legislative practice. All speeches in legislative bodies at the time were nominally addressed to the president / speaker (here, Peyton Randolph), but Henry was actually directing his speech to the other Convention members.
Oh this is wonderful! Thanks. I'm a sucker for this, so brought a tear to my eye.